Inventions and Discoveries from the Muslim World free essay sample

PenInventions and Discoveries from the Muslim World By Adnaan Idrees Have you ever noticed that all the books on science and technology somehow only seem to be filled with discoveries and inventions from the likes of Aristotle, Archimedes, Da Vinci and Thomas Edison but what about the Muslims? Where are all our discoveries? A period of a thousand years exists between these thinkers and when great Muslim men and women expressed their religiosity through contributions made to society and the sciences. So what were these contributions? And how many of these things are used today? MEDICINE: Masters of Ophthalmology: All the modern terms that your optician uses like conjunctiva, cornea, uvea and retina come from Muslim eye surgeons of the 10th to the 13th Century. They were conducting operations on diseases of the lids like trachoma, glaucoma or as they called it ‘the headache of the pupil’ back then but the greatest contribution they made to ophthalmology was developing a treatment for cataracts. Also known as al-ma’ nazul’ayn Ma’, which meant â€Å"the descending water onto the eye† (the water accumulating in the lens making it cloudy). Al-Mawsili in the 10th Century Iraq designed a hollow needle and inserted it through the limbus to remove the cataract by suction. This very same procedure is carried out to this very day. From his study and practice he wrote a book called The Book of Choices in the Treatment of Eye Diseases. Not a very good name for a book but hey the man was a genius when it came to diseases of the eye as the book discusses 48 different diseases! The manuscript of this book can still be found to this very day, in the Escorial Library in Madrid, Spain. Surgical instruments: The Muslim Surgeon named Abu Al Qasim Al-Zahrawi (10th century) known as Abulcasis in the West is truly the father of surgery. He devised over 200 instruments; his scalpels, bone saws, forceps and fine scissors amongst others are still used in their original form today! He is the author of Kitab Al-Tasrif (method of medicine)- a 30 volumes encyclopaedia on medical practices and his greatest contribution to medicine; this book includes symptoms and treatments of 100’s of diseases, descriptions of particular aspects of pharmacology and diet; and the last, most famous and influential volume about surgical practices. EVERYDAY INVENTIONS and DISCOVERIES Cheques: comes from the Arabic â€Å"saqq†. As a form of payment it is a written vow to honour payment for merchandise when its destination is reached. The cheque was created due to the possible dangers of transporting coins as legal tender. In promoting the concept of the saqq or cheque Muslims made the financing of commerce and intercontinental trade possible. In the 9th century it was possible to cash a cheque in China and then withdraw it in Baghdad. Can you say Kerching!? Fountain Pen: Before pens ever came into existence as we know them today, there were other writing instruments like Qalams or reed pens, which were used by the Arabs in the art of calligraphy. But the problem was the same, the ink always existed outside of the pen and it constantly had to make use of an ink-holder. An Arab called Qadi abu Hanifah al-Nu’man ibn Muhammed, who was a close companion to the Egyptian sultan al-Mu’izz, in 953 CE, wrote a book called ‘The Book of Audiences and Concurrence’ in which he recollects how the Al-Mu’izz ordered the commissioning of the fountain pen: â€Å"We wish to construct a pen which can be used for writing without having recourse to an ink-holder and whose ink will be contained inside it. A person can fill it with ink and write whatever he likes and the writer can put it in his sleeve and it will not stain nor leak. The ink will flow only when there is an intention to write. † The companion asked: â€Å"Is this possible? And the sultan replied: â€Å"It is possible if God so wills. † Sure enough a few days later the craftsman brought a pen which wrote when it was filled with ink, never leaked when turned upside down and did not require the use of an ink pot as it held its own. Unlike today’s fountain pens that leak all over the place, this writer sincerely agrees with the Sultans sentiments. Coffee: yep, you read that right, Muslims â€Å"invented† coffee. The first evidence found of coffee-drinking appears in Sufi shrines in Yemen where they would drink this beverage to be able to stay awake late into the night performing dhikr (something we can all relate to). Coffee spread quickly, in one century it has reached Africa and the whole of the Middle East; arrived in Europe through Italy and spread to the rest of Europe. In the 1600’s, sultan Murad IV decided to ban coffee! Some say it was because once, while patrolling his city in disguise, the sultan heard the coffee drinkers having deep and thoughtful conversations about the (sad) state of the empire while the alcohol drinkers were happily partying. Other stories say that coffeehouses had become meeting places for leisure and discussions instead of masjids hence why all coffeehouses were closed down and coffee banned. Whatever the reasons, somehow this bitter yet addictive drink is now found in every household. SOCIETY: Universities: In Islam, we are encouraged to seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave. Some of the very first Muslim schools were in fact mosques which served as both a place of prayer and learning. They taught all manner of subjects including sciences alongside religious studies which was a completely novel idea in comparison to the rest of the world. The oldest university in the world is the Al-Qaraouine University in Fez, Morocco which was established in 841 CE. It may interest all those parents who think girls shouldn’t go to university that the Al-Qaraouine University was established by a pious young Muslim woman called Fatima al-Fahra. She was the daughter of a successful businessman who spent her entire inheritance on building the university and as a result she spared no expense. Upon commencing the project she fasted regularly until the building was complete. On opening its doors the university was flooded with applications from not only the local people but from international students all the way from Iraq. And unlike today’s universities students did not have to pay fees. In fact financial support was part of the package, which was made possible by endowments from the royal families (at least they were once good for something). Its education included all subjects, but in particular the natural sciences. To quote Einstein â€Å"science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind. Weaponry: Military might was something that the earlier Muslims understood really well. One of the most influential book on military technology was The Book of Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices by the Syrian scholar Hasan al-Rammah, written sometime in the 12th Century. It includes the schematics of the first rocket (a model of which is exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington DC, USA today), cannons and grenades. Although the Chinese knew about Gunpowder, they only used it in fireworks as they could not get the proportions right for use in war nor were able to purify the potassium nitrate. Hasan al-Rammahs book was the first to explain the purification process of potassium nitrate and the recipe for gunpowder. The Muslim Armies in 1249 used gunpowder in war  resulting in decisive victories against the invading crusaders. In fact the invaders were so terrified of the devices that a French Crusader Army was disbanded and retreated leaving their king to be taken prisoner. An example of such a cannon made from Hasam al-Rammahs book is on display at Fort Nelson Museum in London which was a gift given to Queen Victoria by Sultan Abdul Aziz. Windmills: Ever see one of those environmentally friendly windmills? All across an entire fie ld generating energy from the winds themselves; ever wondered where such a contraption came from? In order to fuel any great society a constant supply of renewable energy is required; over a thousand years ago this energy was harnessed. In the towns, water-driven mills processed wheat but in the drier parts of Arabia, where water was scarce, they had to come up with an alternative. And the one thing that is plentiful in the desert is the wind! Blowing in the same direction all year round. So in 634 a Persian Caliph named Umar was approached by a Persian engineer claiming to be able to make a mill operated solely by the wind. Intrigued, the Caliph immediately ordered him to construct one. The first few windmills were constructed in the Persian province of Sistan and al-Masudi which was later described by one geographer as the country of wind and sand. Early mills had 6 to 12 sails covered with fabric. From this invention many new trades were born and it wasn’t long before these caught the eye of the crusaders who then introduced them to Europe in the 12th Century Ibn Al-Haytham and the Pinhole Camera: I know this doesn’t sound like the most exciting invention ever but bear with me a little. This man, Ibn (Son of) Al-Haytham is known as the father of modern optics, and not for bad reasons either! Back in the fifth century, it was believed that our eyes EMITTED light rays (superman style) and this theory was upheld all through famous Greek and Roman thinkers until the 11th century where our man, Ibn Al-Haytham, proved scientifically that we are not emitting rays but rather visible light enters our eyes and hence we can see. His greatest and irrefutable proof was the pinhole camera, the principle is simple, light rays enters a small hole and an inverted image is formed on a film at the back. The pinhole camera is still used today, the images produced are softer and they have a nearly infinite depth of field, check them out, they’re quite amazing! So you see, our amazing modern world isn’t all about Aristotle and Plato, no, our world was largely shaped by people who were not scared to tackle deep-rooted ideas or taken-for-granted theories, who, with their faith in Allah and Quran by their side, were able to make major breakthroughs and inventions in all aspects of Human life. Our brothers and sisters opened the path for us so what are we waiting for? Don’t be scared to challenge everything and anything, don’t be scared to let your imagination run wild, draw, create, invent, test, prove! Our beloved religion encourages us to do all this: Our Lord’s very first word to the Prophet (pbuh) was â€Å"IQRA† which means Read! Thus showing the importance of knowledge. Also, the prophet (pbuh) said: He who treads a path in search of knowledge, Allah will direct him to tread a path from the paths of Paradise. The Angels lower their wings for the student of knowledge in approval of what he does. All in the heavens and Earth and (even) the fish in the depth of the water seek forgiveness for the scholar, and the superiority of the scholar over the worshipper is like the superiority of the full moon at night over the rest of the stars.

WordPress Blog Typography How to Improve It

The fonts you use on your blog can have a big impact on how the website feels to your visitors. Are you writing for a formal audience or a casual audience? An audience seeking a feminine lifestyle blog or a forward-thinking technology blog? The choices you make about your WordPress blog typography lend an immediate atmosphere to what your visitors are looking at, even before they ever read a word.Many WordPress themes come with fonts carefully selected and paired by the designer, but some are rather plain. Or perhaps you want to use a theme for something other than its original purpose, and the font choices the designer made no longer match your goals.Maybe you just want to freshen things up without having to go through the sometimes arduous process of migrating to a new theme. Whatever the case, tweaking your WordPress blogs fonts is a great way to change the look and feel of your website without investing a lot of time and effort.How to improve your WordPress blog typographyThis po st will cover a few easy ways to change and improve your WordPress blog typography and font styles, from diving into the settings for your theme, to using a purpose built plugin.Lets get started:Some typography rules to keep in mindIn order to make consuming your content more enjoyable, you need to choose a font size and number of characters per line that is easy to read. To do this, you can use the Golden Ratio Typography Calculator. Just enter your content width, and it will offer you suggestions for the perfect font size and line height for your paragraphs and headers.Once you have these suggestions, you can integrate them with your blog in a number of different ways.For a manual approach, just follow these instructions to determine which elements to edit in your custom CSS. You can place your code in the box under Appearance Edit CSS.Note. Heres a short tutorial on how you can add custom fonts in ThemeIsle themes using this method.Changing your fonts through theme settingsThe o ptions you have for editing your WordPress blog typography vary wildly from one theme to the next. Some themes give you the utmost control over fonts, sizes, and colors if you dig into the settings enough, whereas others give you next to no control (Im looking at you, default WordPress themes).For example, here are the typography settings from a theme I have installed on one of my sites:Compare that to Twenty Fifteen, which only lets you change the colors of the text on your site, and nothing about the font:Since this is completely different from theme to theme, its a good idea to look for typography settings first. Theme settings are typically either under the Appearance section of the admin dashboard  menu, or in their own new menu section under the name of the theme. If you find typography settings for your theme, great thatll be the easiest way to change your sites fonts. But if you dont see them, dont despair, just keep reading.Changing your fonts using a pluginBecause of th e lack of font settings by default in WordPress, developers have released a huge number of typography plugins. Out of all the options available, there are two in particular that I would recommend. One of them is extremely simple and easy to use, while the other gives you a little bit more control:1. Styleguide Styleguide Custom Fonts and Colors Author(s): Ben GillbanksCurrent Version: 1.7.2Last Updated: August 31, 2019styleguide.zip 100%Ratings 65,028Downloads Requires Styleguide is a free WordPress plugin that expands upon the WordPress Live Customizer, a built-in feature that lets you preview changes youd like to make to your site before making them live. It adds 45 of the most common Google Fonts under a Colors Fonts menu, which is an adaptation of the existing Colors menu that is there by default. Google Fonts is one of the most convenient libraries of web fonts because all of the fonts are free, even for commercial use.After searching for the plugin, installing it on your site, and activating it, you can customize your blogs fonts under Appearance Customize in the WordPress menu. This will open the Live Customizer. After you click Colors Fonts, your options will look like this:From here, you can select a font for your sites title, and a font to use for the body text and headings. For each, you can also choose default, normal, or bold font weight. As you make changes, they will be displayed in a live preview to the right of the options.This WordPress blog typography plugin is super easy to use, but it is somewhat limiting. All of your headings will be in the same font as the body text, just at predetermined sizes and weights. There are also no settings in this plugin to recolor specific headings or other paragraph styles. Styleguide is a great choice if you need something super quick and easy, but isnt the best choice if you need to make more detailed changes to the fonts and colors of specific headings.2. WP Google Fonts WP Google Fonts Aut hor(s): Noah KaganCurrent Version: v3.1.4Last Updated: March 4, 2019wp-google-fonts.zip 80%Ratings 1,173,966Downloads 2.0.2Requires For cases where you do want to set specific fonts and font weights for certain headings, WP Google Fonts is the plugin for you. As one of the most popular free WordPress typography plugins, it has over 100,000 active installs plus a 4-star review average, and its a plugin I regularly use when setting up a new WordPress website.In addition to letting you choose from well over 100 of Googles web fonts, you can choose the weight you need, check off which styles to apply it to, and even enter custom CSS. Using this plugin you can customize up to six different fonts and what they apply to. (Not that you should use that many – fonts look most professional when you stick to pairing just two or, at most, three.)When you are done adjusting the settings for your fonts, be sure to click the blue Save All Fonts button to apply the changes to your site.U nfortunately, you cannot preview changes to your website before they go live with the WP Google Fonts plugin, unlike with Styleguide, but the level of customization you get in return is worth it.Final thoughtsChanging your WordPress blog typography styles is one of the quickest and easiest ways to alter the mood of your website, whether you accomplish it through your theme settings, the WordPress Live Customizer tool, or a free plugin like Styleguide or WP Google Fonts.Do you use one of these plugins to customize your WordPress blog typography or do you have another favorite? Please share in the comments below.

Later Adulthood Development Report Essay Essay Example

Later Adulthood Development Report Essay Essay Example Later Adulthood Development Report Essay Essay Later Adulthood Development Report Essay Essay As grownups enter the phase of subsequently maturity. many alterations will get down to develop for each individual. The aging procedure includes transitioning from work life to retirement. alterations to functions. societal places. societal policies. finding populating adjustments with health care demands. and relationships with households and equals. The phase known as the aureate old ages comes with great challenges while seting to the many alterations in a person’s life. ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010 ) . Passage from work to retirement The passage from a working life to the retirement old ages can be a hard procedure for aging grownups as giving up higher wages for the sum paid for Social Security is drastically different. Coercing retired grownups to look for supplement income during this phase at a lower position than antecedently held in a anterior place. Most companies offer a pension or 401k program to assist employees be after for a better retirement as it is about impossible to populate on Social Security entirely. This alteration besides plays a big factor on how the single positions their personal dignity. Alternatively of pluming themselves in the cognition of an business. retirement forces the individual to give up that function in hunt of another beginning to busy their clip. ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010 ) . Passage from work to retirement Cont. Retirement can be an enjoyed clip for some older grownups as they see it as the first clip since childhood they are able to make the things they want in life without worrying about the bounds caused by a profession. Others will fight to calculate out to make with all the excess clip during each twenty-four hours. Depending greatly on the attitude a individual had toward the many old ages spent employed and the ability to go on financially back uping the extracurricular points they would wish to partake in during retirement. Personal wellbeing plays a big factor in how the grownup will manage the retirement old ages and determine extra wellness issues a individual may confront. With a solid retirement program go oning to back up the individual financially. this can be a joyous clip while others larning to populate on a fixed income will detect important alterations to their overall wellness. These alterations are brought on by depression. a feeling of no longer being needed. or the bo red from non holding a specific undertaking for mundane life. ( Allen. Clark. A ; Ghent. 2004 ) . Changes in function and societal place As aging advancements people begin to lose their function and societal places caused by the alterations to activities. each individual is involved in and illnesses the aged develop. The deficiency of physical and mental activities begins to diminish psychomotor accomplishments that affect assorted facets of day-to-day life. When people start aging the alterations in the ability to see and hear Begin to worsen doing it look as if the individual suffers from a diminution in mental competence. which may non be the instance and it merely takes an older individual longer to treat the information that is given to them. Physically the alterations to a person’s organic structure will get down in in-between maturity with the most noticeable occurrence in subsequently maturity. Physical alterations in musculus tone and tallness along with a slower apprehension of the universe around them creates the perceptual experience of the older grownup as a weaker individual in the eyes of their l oved 1s and is the clip when wellness issues become more noticeable. ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010 ) . Changes in function and societal place Cont. As reaction times lag. the aged Begin to lose privileges like drive because the reaction clip is greatly affected and is thought to be the cause of extra accidents. Driving is. normally. the first undertaking removed from a individual when they are no longer able to run a vehicle safely without jeopardizing the lives of others. Once a individual begins to see this normal undertaking being taken off from them it causes the individual to go dependent on households or friends to assist with their day-to-day demands. and decreases the feeling of autonomy. which causes the alteration to the function a individual has in society. ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010 ) . Changes in matrimony. household and peer relationships Subsequently maturity is the clip in life when alterations in matrimony. households. and peer relationships are affected the most by the loss of person stopping point to that individual. â€Å"Most people 70 old ages of age or older are widowed. divorced. or single† ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010. p. 619 ) . Losing a partner or close friend can make a sense of solitariness. which causes depression. anxiousness and the emptiness feeling can go overpowering. Depression besides leads to psychological effects that will deteriorate a person’s wellness doing the opportunity for a terminal disease to go much higher. The weaker visual aspect of older grownups causes household and staying equals to step up in the function of doing certain the person’s well-being is being met. ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010 ) . Populating adjustments and health care demands Worsening wellness and depression are two of the largest grounds households look into assisted life places for aging loved 1s. Making certain that the health care needs of the aged are met becomes a precedence for every household as the functions begin to change by reversal from the parent being the primary health professional of their kids to the kids being responsible for run intoing the demands of aging parents. Diseases such Alzheimer’s and dementedness are really hard for non merely the older individual but for their households as good. As a individual with this disease is no longer able to populate on their ain without the fright of something bad go oning while no 1 else is around to watch over them. The disease affects all normal facets of a person’s life. making confusion. aggressive behaviours. incontinency. and the inability to run into the day-to-day demands without supervising doing it necessary to happen a installation that will run into the demands of the patient. ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010 ) . Finding a installation that will run into all the demands of the older grownup and have a degree of attention that the household desires can be hard to happen. Researching all installations in the country will assist maintain a peace of head for the household and reassure that their loved 1s are having the attention they need. Medical plans Healthcare for older grownups is expensive. and since many are populating on fixed incomes. they rely on plans such as Medicaid and Medicare to run into their medical demands. Due to the economic position of the authorities and the high cost of medical attention. both of these plans now provide limited services to older grownup. The quality of medical attention older people will have will besides be lessened as many primary attention doctors focus their pattern on younger coevalss. making an inability to right name jobs in older maturity. Treating younger people allows the doctors to do more money off the current Medicare plans because of the restrictions in topographic point to curtail extra processs when needed. ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010 ) . Social policies impacting older grownups Social policies were created to help the aging population meet medical. day-to-day and income demands. The Older Americans Act of 1965 was created to guarantee that older grownups receive benefits of income. equal lodging. community services. and nutrition plans. ( Gelfand. A ; Bechill. 1991 ) . The Supplement Security Income plan was designed to supply extra income after retirement for the persons that worked the needed sum of old ages to have full benefits. Medicare programs are split into a bipartite system that will pay for limited medical disbursals incurred after retirement. Separate A of the program pays for limited attention during infirmary corsets. nursing places. and place wellness attention when needed. while Part B covers physician disbursals and out-patient services. Throughout the old ages. many alterations have been made to the policies because of alterations in presidential term and budget cuts to the federally funded plans. ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010 ) . Dec ision The alterations that occur for the older grownup population make it necessary for extended planning during the in-between maturity phase. for retirement and reflecting on how each person will supply their basic demands when the clip comes. Plans will assist to ease the emphasis of aging. set less of a load on household members. and do certain that the aged receive the medical attending they need without trusting on authorities assisted plans. Keeping a presence in societal groups will assist the overall mental and physical position of the aging population. The hereafter is up to each individual to command how they want to populate during the last phase of life. ( Zastrow A ; Kirst-Ashman. 2010 ) . MentionsAllen. S. G. . Clark. R. L. . A ; Ghent. L. S. ( 2004 ) . Phasing into retirement. The Industrial A ; Labor Relations Review. 58 ( 1 ) . 112-127. Gelfand. D. E. . A ; Bechill. W. ( 1991. Summer-Fall ) . The development of the older Americans act: a 25-year reappraisal of the legislative alterations. Coevalss. 15 ( 3 ) . 19-22. Zastrow. C. H. . A ; Kirst-Ashman. K. K. ( 2010 ) . Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment ( 8th ed. ) . Mason. Ohio: Brooks Cole/Cengage.

Word Choice Each vs. Every - Writing Tips with Proofed

Word Choice Each vs. Every - Writing Tips with Proofed Word Choice: Each vs. Every â€Å"Each† and â€Å"every† are both determiners. They also both refer to something as singular. They are even interchangeable in some cases! As such, it’s not surprising that people mix them up sometimes. However, these terms also have slightly different uses, so you need to be careful to avoid errors. Each vs. Every (Groups of Three or More Things) Both of these terms can be used to refer to a group of people or things. For example: We were told to read each book on the list. We were told to read every book on the list. In this case, both sentences imply reading all of the books on the list. The only difference is that â€Å"each† makes us think of reading the books one by one, while â€Å"every† makes us think of them collectively. But this only works when the group comprises three or more things. And the difference between these terms becomes obvious if we apply them to a group of two things. Each vs. Every (Two Things) If you are referring to two people or things, the word you will need is â€Å"each†: He had an apple in each hand. âÅ"“ He had an apple in every hand. âÅ"â€" The first sentence here implies that someone is holding two apples. The second sentence, by comparison, suggests that we’re dealing with some kind of many-handed octopus man. Or possibly a Hindu deity. Every vs. All Since it is used for larger groups, â€Å"every† is like the word â€Å"all† in that both terms refer to a group of three or more things collectively. However, â€Å"every† is only ever used with singular countable nouns, while â€Å"all† is used with plural nouns or uncountable nouns: Every alpaca deserves a hug. All alpacas deserve a hug. If we compare the sentences above, we can see the differences: â€Å"every† is used with a singular noun and a singular verb; â€Å"all† is used with a plural noun and plural verb. So while thinking of â€Å"every† as a synonym for â€Å"all† can be helpful, you still need to combine it with singular terms. Hug me! Each and Every? Finally, a quick note on the phrase â€Å"each and every.† Some people combine these terms as a form of emphasis when referring to larger groups. This is fine, but it is technically a redundant expression. You should not therefore use â€Å"each and every† in formal writing (e.g., a college paper).

How has friendship changed because of the spread of social networking Essay

How has friendship changed because of the spread of social networking are these changes more positive than negative, or have they caused more harm than good - Essay Example When friends are connected through a social media site, it is easy to find out the whereabouts of one another. It is also easy to find out what the other people are up to over the weekends, upcoming events, relationships and their current location. One can have as much time on social media as they want since the only charges that apply are those of internet connections. Friendship has changed from physical meetings and contact, to the internet sites. This means that one does not have to go through the hustle of arranging for a meeting when all the information required can be communicated through web platforms. It is easier and convenient to communicate through social networking because it is done at the convenience of the two parties involved. This element is useful; however, friends lose touch with one another in terms of physical approach. There is no much effort placed in making eye to eye contact with friends. The physical boundary has become independent. Friendship has become casual (Farah web). Friendships and how individuals make friends has changed ever since the invention of social media. Individuals prefer to be in a virtual world where one cannot be known fully but only at the superficial level. Social media has the option of adding individuals as friends. However this definition of friend is an online one. The two people may not even know each other but are friends on Facebook because one of them added the other. This kind of friendship is only superficial and shallow and exists in the virtual world. The two people, who call themselves â€Å"friends†, have no real life experiences (Barett web). On the other hand, social media has led to mistrust and deception among individuals. Some people have put a vetting mechanism for all people who add others as friends to avoid misleading characters in the name of â€Å"friends†. Social media can lead to breaking of good relationships (Parrack). Information

Constitutional Law of the European Union Case Study

Constitutional Law of the European Union - Case Study Example Accordingly. Germany must defend that the decision to restrict its national policy of supporting companies with financial benefits should have been taken by unanimous voting. Article 94 also envisages that there shall be a unanimous decision in respect of directives, regulations and regulations affecting the common market functioning. This is a good defence for Germany to maintain that if national companies are not supported with financial benefits, they will be adversely affected by unhealthy competition from the financially strong companies. Though there are proviso for derogation of these requirements by adopting Qualified Majority Voting, (QMV), the derogation power for overriding the unanimous voting requirements can not used for restricting a single member state from supporting its national companies when there possibilities of similar practices being followed at all member states in some form or other though the commission may not have received complaints.. There is no reason how it will distort competition when such practices likely to be followed by all the member states. Hence a decision of this nature should not be discriminatory towards a single member state alone. ... In the instance case itself, though there were complaints against France and Germany, action is directed at Germany only. Hence the decision is blatantly discriminatory by the abuse of QMV. The EC Treaty itself has provisions for creating interventionist funds to ward off difficulties. Hence Germany can rely on the above defences before the court of justice for cancelling the impugned decision. As Luxembourg Compromise was only a guideline and not statutory until recently without anticipating any such exigency, Germany can argue that this QMV principles must be reviewed so as to prevent vested interests from joining together against a single member state by insisting on unanimous voting. Germany's practice has been open and transparent while other member states are not likely to be so as there is no way of detecting such practices in guise. Germany being singled out alone will result in competition distortion. Moreover the commission does not appear to have followed the procedures giving opportunity to Germany before taking the impugned decision. In case no C-288/962, the court of justice has observed as follows. Plea in law alleging failure to observe the rights of the defence 92 By its first plea in law the German Government complains that the Commission denied it and the Land of Lower Saxony access to the observations, mentioned in section II of the grounds of the contested decision, which had been sent to the Commission, during the administrative procedure, by letters of 31 August 1995, 1 September 1995 and 4 September 1995, by four competitors of Jadekost. 93 According to section II, the letters in question pointed out, in particular, that Jadekost had used the aid granted to win market share from its competitors through sales at below-cost prices.

Instrumentalism Theories

Instrumentalism Theories Introduction. The course which I teach within is to prepare new employees for working within a manufacturing environment within a highly regulated industry. All learners are required to show competence on a range of skills ranging from health and safety through to industry specific manufacturing skills. The qualifications may be in the form of a National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) or in an industry specific internal training event. Learners ages will range from 19 to 55 and they will come from a wide range of employment backgrounds such as retail, construction or other industrial roles. Ideologies and Theories of Learning. As identified by Scrimshaw (1983) cited by Armstrong et al (2003), â€Å"Instrumentalism: a curriculum delivering a specific product such as the development of a skilled workforce.† The instrumental curriculum is focused on practical skills and is teacher led. This is only one of five educational ideologies identified but is the one most comparable with the course that I teach. (Should I list the others) Curriculum Models. The closest match for my course is the ‘Product model for curriculum development which is closely associated with Ralph Tyler (1971) cited by Armitage et al (2003). Neary (2002) describes the product model as a curriculum which has been entirely designed around the meeting of clear objectives. My course has clear aims and expected outcomes to which methods of learning and assessment are clearly mapped. The evaluation methods are designed to identify any shortfall and for corrections to be made to enable learners to meet the objectives that have been set. As the expected outcomes are clear from the outset it allows for clear design of content and also ensures an accurate and fair assessment process. However as the course structure is rigid it limits creativity both for lesson design but also for learner activities. However as with most models applied to an actual teaching environment there is an element of overlap with one or more of the models identified by Smith (1996, 2000) www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm . Although the ‘Product model is the main influence on my course the ‘Process model must still be a consideration as it is designed around how individuals learn and focuses on teacher and learner activities. By acknowledging the ‘Process model it allows an emphasis to be placed on the learners current and prior experiences. The context of the course will impact substantially on curriculum design, delivery, assessment and evaluation, my own teaching philosophy and profession values will have an effect on the course delivery. As my course is influenced by an instrumentalist ideology and using the ‘Product model for the design the links with behaviourism can clearly be seen; however as previously mentioned this is an over simplification as I do consider the other learning theories and do take a cognitive approach. Critical reflection. As previously recognised there are elements of the ‘Process model within my programmes curriculum; however I feel that it relates most closely to the ‘Product model as the objectives are clearly defined from the outset. To analyse the effectiveness of this model I shall answer the questions set by Tyler (1971) as cited in Armitage et al (2003:201), â€Å"which, he claims, must be answered when developing any curriculum†. 1. What are your curriculum aims and objectives? 2. Which learning experiences meet these aims and objectives? 3. How can these learning experiences be organised into a curriculum programme. 4. How can this programme be evaluated. 1. What are your curriculum aims and objectives? The aim of my programme curriculum is to deliver the necessary learning to satisfy our external regulators and to meet the skills and capabilities required by AWE plc. To meet the requirements of our external regulators we must demonstrate competence in the following element. * General safety. * Mandatory safety * Role specific. 2. Which learning experiences meet these aims and objectives? 2.1 General Safety. This element is delivered by theory based classroom sessions that will include practical tasks where appropriate. 2.2. Mandatory Safety. Delivered as a series of theory lessons and practical tasks within a simulated work environment. 2.3. Role specific. Training delivered in the work area by subject matter experts. 3. How can these learning experiences be organised into a curriculum programme.